The basic concepts of economic science on the example of Marxism. Economic theory of Marxism

I. Economic theory

42. Marxism

Karl Marx (1818 - 1883) - German economist, philosopher, founder of Marxism - the economic direction, which expressed the interests of the working class. Marxism is a peculiar option for the development of a classic economic school.

K. Marx was born on May 5, 1818 in Dash (Germany) in a lawyer's family. From 1835 he studied at Bonn University, and from 1836 to 1841 - in Berlin University.

Since 1850, K. Marx lives in London, where he writes its work "Capital". Due to the significant financial support of his friend F. Engels K. Marx published in 1867 the first volume of "Capital". To complete the writing of the second and third volumes K. Marx was failed due to awareness of the unexplosion of work. March 14, 1883 he died.

The refinement and preparation for the printing of the second and third volumes was carried out by F. Engels. The fourth volume was published after the death of F. Engels in 1905.

An individual feature of the methodology K. Marx is the idea of \u200b\u200bthe basis and superstructure:cumulative production relationships of people, Economic structure of society - basis,over which is located superstructure.

The cost of goods comes from the magnitude of the socially necessary labor costs spent on its production at the average level of intensity - the law of valueformulated by K. Marx.

In his teaching K. Marx distinguished the consumer and exchange cost. Consumer cost- the ability of the goods to meet the needs. Exchange value- The ability of the thing to exchange to another product.

Surplus value,on Marx, there is the cost of the product of unpaid labor workers. The introduction of this concept made it possible to show how without a violation of the law of value, the worker receives only part of the payment of his work. Real wageAccording to a scientist, never grows proportion to the increase in productive labor,that is, signs of operation are manifested.

The norm is operatingthe ratio of surplus value to the size of alternating capital corresponding to the payment of labor.

Money -this is a product, spontaneously allocated from all types of goods and playing universal equivalent, expressive value of all goods.

Money, according to K. Marx, are a universal payment and purchasing agent, but they cannot exist in the absence of trade exchange. K. Marx considered money the first form of capital existence.

Under capital, they were understood by money bringing the surplus value.

Capital in the circuit runs three stages:
- iz monetary formgoes in productiverepresenting the means of production and labor;
- in the second stage production capitalparticipates in the production process, moving to commodity form;
- by selling products commodity form of capitaltransformed by B. monetary

The change of stages is carried out consistently.

In the circuit of capital, which simultaneously performs in three forms (monetary, productive ITOVAR), K. Marx identified as industrial capital.

Views of K. Marx on rent theorycoincide with the views of D. Ricardo. The merit of K. Marx is recognized "Absolute" rent.Under the latter is meant Rent from the lands of the worst quality (fertility) or more distant from markets.

Essence cyclic theory economic Development capitalismconsisting of that achievement macroeconomic equilibrium and consistent the economic growth impossible as a result of existence economic crises.The cause of the crisis is the lack of automatic growth of efficient demand, when expanding production. Low wages lead to the absence of workers' ability to buy commodity products produced by them. Exit from the crisis and ensuring the reproduction of K. Marx saw in additional expenses from the capitalists and landowners.

Economic School of Marxism.

Methodology K. Marx takes the beginning of the following sources: Classical political economy of A. Smith and D. Ricardo - labor theory of value, labor productivity, etc German classical philosophy - dialectic and materialism; Utopic Socialism is sociological aspects, the concept of class struggle. An individual feature of the methodology K. Marx is the idea of \u200b\u200bthe basis and superstructure:cumulative industrial relations of people, the economic structure of society - basis,over which is located superstructure ..The cost of goods comes from the magnitude of the socially necessary labor costs spent on its production at the average level of intensity - the law of valueformulated by K. Marx. In his teaching K. Marx distinguished the consumer and exchange cost.

Consumer cost- the ability of the goods to meet the needs.

Exchange value- The ability of the thing to exchange to another product.

Surplus value,on Marx, there is the cost of the product of unpaid labor workers. The introduction of this concept made it possible to show how without a violation of the law of value, the worker receives only part of the payment of his work. Real salary According to scientist, never grows proportion to the increase in productive labor,that is, signs of operation are manifested.

The norm is operatingthe ratio of surplus value to the size of alternating capital corresponding to the payment of labor. Money -this is a product, spontaneously allocated from all kinds of goods and a playing role. in general equivalent, expressive value of the entire goods. Money, according to K. Marx, are a total payment and purchasing agent, but they cannot exist in the absence of trade exchange. K. Marx considered money the first form of capital existence.

Under capital, they were understood by money bringing the surplus value. Capital in the circuit goes through three stages: - from monetary formgoes in productiverepresenting the means of production and labor; - in the second stage production capitalparticipates in the production process, moving to commodity form;- by selling products commodity form of capitaltransformed by B. monetary

The change of stages is carried out sequentially. In a circuit capital, which simultaneously performs in three forms (monetary, productive ITOVAR), K. Marx identified as industrial capital..Views of K. Marx on rent theorycoincide with the views of D. Ricardo. The merit of K. Marx is recognized "Absolute" rent.Under the latter, it is customary to understand the Rent from the lands of the worst quality (fertility) or more distant from markets. Essence the theory of cyclicity of economic development of capitalismit consists in which the achievement of macroeconomic equilibrium and consistent economic growth is impossible as a result of existence economic crises.The cause of the crisis is the lack of automatic growth of efficient demand, when expanding production. Low salary Leads to the absence of workers' ability to buy commodity products made by them. Exit from the crisis and ensuring the reproduction of K. Marx saw in additional expenses from the capitalists and landowners.

Topic 5. Economic doctrine K. Marx

Plan

5.1. Historical conditions for the emergence of Marxism.

5.2. Methodology K. Marx.

5.3. Marxism as a continuation of the classic school of political economy.

5.4. Marxism and modernity.

5.1. Historical conditions for the emergence of Marxism

Marxism as a system of philosophical, economic and socio-political views arose in the middle of the 19th century, its founders are German scientists Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895).

- This is the direction of economic theory, the purpose of which is to study the patterns of capitalism and the definition of its historical place, "the opening of the economic law of movement modern society". The emergence of Marxism as a holistic theoretical systemreflecting the interests of the proletariat, was prepared by all the progress of the Company's development preceding the development of capitalism.

The material prerequisite for the formation of Marxism is the development of productive forces and further changes in the system of production relations of capitalism.

Industrial coup, which occurred in the early 19th century, first in England, and then in other countries of Western Europe, led to the fact that the basis of the economy becomes machine production, the rapid growth of factories, plants, a change in the old forms of production relations, the class structure of society. The development of machine production in the early stages caused the deterioration of the position of the working class and the exacerbation of the contradiction of the proletariat and the bourgeoisie, which was manifested in the uprising of Lyon weavers in Germany (1844)

The exacerbation of social and economic contradictions predetermined the need to rethinking a number of provisions of economic theory that bind to industrial turn-free progress and the growth of the well-being of the people. The deepening of the contradictions of capitalism and the inability of old bourgeois economic theories to find ways of their permission are also prerequisites for the formation of Marxism. In addition, proletariat came out on the arena of the historical struggle, and his class struggle with the bourgeoisie in the most developed countries Europe spoke to the fore. There was a need for theoretical substantiation of the economic and political requirements of the working class. These tasks have implemented Marxism. The creative legacy of the founders of this exercise number several dozen volumes, among which the priority belongs to the four-volume capital "capital" K. Marx. The first volume of "Capital" was published in 1867. After the death of K. Marx, F. Engels carried out the editorial board II and III of Tomov, IV Tom was published by the leader of the German Social Democracy K. Kautsky in 1905-1910 and is called the "theory of surplus value".

Creative heritage K. Marx has a lot in common with the achievements of his predecessors on the "classic" school economic thought, especially. Samita and D.Rikarto. Classics belong to K. Marks, who brought the science on the production of wealth to perfection.

Subject political economy K. Marx, like all the classics, considered the historical study of the problems of production. Only by the production relations of people about production, it gives class character and considers them from the position of the interests of the proletariat, substantiates its historical mission.

5.2. Methodology K. Marx

According to K. Marx itself, as a scientist methodologically, he proceeded simultaneously from three scientific sources: the English classical political economist A. Smith and D. Ricardo, the German classical philosophy of Hegel and Feyerbach and French utopian socialism.

From other areas and schools of economic theory, the Marxist school is characterized primarily by the peculiarity of the methodology. One of them is a historical approach to analyzing studied phenomena and processes.

The historicism of Marx is to withdraw on the inevitable change of capitalism to a more progressive social system. However, in the works of K. Marx and F. Engels Critica did not turn into a complete denial of the achievements of bourgeois science. On the contrary, the scientific elements of existing theories have been preserved and developed.

Representatives of the classical school of political economy were borrowed and creatively developed by the work theory of value, the provisions of the law of the norm of profit rate to a decrease in productive work, etc.

Critical analysis was carried out on the basis of the method of materialistic dialectics.

Materialism, as the direction of philosophy, was known in antiquity and how the method of cognition proceeds from the primaryness of the material and the secondaryness of the spiritual.

The dialectical approach, except for the principle of historicism, implies, according to K. Marx, finding out the causes of the emergence, evolution and disappearance of phenomena, development from a simple to complex, from the lower to the highest, in the study of the transition from a specific one to abstract, the presence of contradictory proceeds Class interests of proletariat and bourgeoisie.

With the name K. Marx associated with the wide distribution of the abstraction method, by means of which the most typical, stable essential features of the phenomenon are distinguished, categories and laws of science are generated.

The abstraction method involves in the study distraction from secondary phenomena, the allocation of the main, substantial and analysis of it. Thus, when analyzing the structure of the class society under capitalism, K. Marx allocated two main classes of this society - proletariat and bourgeoisie, abstracting at this stage of research from other classes and social groups of society.

In the theory of K. Marx, such an element is manifested as a systemic analysis. Empirical, statistical, mathematical methods play the role of auxiliary instruments of knowledge. This set of methodological principles of analysis was used by K. Marx in the development of its economic teaching.

K. Marx was determined by the subject of economic economy as a science examining the production relations of people and the laws of their development. Creative heritage K. Marx has a lot in common with the achievements of its predecessors on the "classic school" of economic thought, especially A. Smith and D. Ricardo. The subject of political economy, K., like all the classics, considered a priority study of production. In particular, The words of political economy, starting with U. Petti, explores the internal dependences of the bourgeois relations of production.

Thus, the political economy according to the definition of K. Marx, in the broadest sense there is a science on the laws managering the production and exchange of material and vital goods in human society. The subject of political economy is production relations, that is, certain economic ties between people arising in the process of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material goods and services.

5.3. Marxism as a continuation of the classic school of political economy

"Capital" - the main work of K. Marx, over which he worked from 1851 to the end of his life (1883)

Marx put the task of creating a work exploring the process of public reproduction in modern conditions.

In accordance with the MAKS methodology, the structure of "Capital" implements the principle of analysis and synthesis. The first volume is devoted to the analysis of the reproduction process; the second volume is the analysis of the process of treatment; the third volume combines the results of previous studies and considers the production process taken as a whole as the unity of production and Appeals. The fourth volume is the theory of surplus value, which constitute the manuscript of K. Marx 1861-1863. The presentation of all four volumes of "capital" is subordinate to one goal - to disclose the laws of movement and the historical place of the capitalist production method.

According to the observation of K. Marx in economic theory, they made the following two discoveries: the dual nature of labor and the law of surplus value. The conviction of K. Marx in the exploitative nature of the modern society of capitalism has determined the urgent task of delivering the labor theory of the cost of the contradictions marked by representatives of the classical school. The solution of this main task is mainly the subject of the content of the first volume of "Capital". In I Tome, for the first time in economic science, a new category "Product - Working" is introduced and the distinctive features are argued from the concept of "work" as the function of labor. The second Tom "Capital ", Dedicated to the process of capital circulation, includes the analysis of the circuit and turnover of capital, reproduction of capital and industrial overproduction crises. The possibility of crises is considered as a consequence of violation of the conditions for the implementation of the aggregate public product, due to the inherent capitalism of the elementaryness of the anarchism of economic life.

The third volume of "CAPITAL" contains an analysis of specific forms of surplus value allocated by Marx. It is devoted to the process of capitalist production taken as a whole, that is, the unity of production and circulation. Using the labor theory of value as a basis for research, which leads to Marx to the conclusion about the historical limitations of capitalism. .

The so-called, the law trend of the rate of profit to the decrease in the capital of the capital "Capital" is derived by Marx from the relative degree of alternating capital compared with the constant, as it introduces to the production of technological progress. Marx calls this process with an increase in the organic structure of capital. And since profits Marx is created only by labor, then increasing absolutely, the profit decreases relatively. This makes the inevitable trend of the average profit rate to a decrease. This, according to Marx, should emphasize the futility of further development of capitalism. But this concept of Marx is based on inadequate theoretical packages and during Subsequent economic development This forecast was not confirmed.

The IV Toma "Capital" contains a critical analysis of the economic views of the predecessors of Marx and its assessment of the evolution of economic thought. It contains a detailed analysis of the theories of representatives of the classical school of political economy.

Marxism perceived, reworked and gave his interpretation of the theoretical heritage of classical political economy. This, above all, refers to the main rational grain of the classic school of labor theory of value. Opening the dual character of labor creating goods, showing that the goods purchased by capitalists in workers is not labor, but working force. Marx, penetrated the "secret of secrets" of capitalism, found the key to understanding and explaining all the facts of capitalist reality. He showed how on the basis of "equality", the "equivalent" exchange between capitalists and workers arises the surveillance value, which is the source of all non-educated income - profits Capitalists and rent land owners, interest received by the usist and bankers, etc. How does the surplus value arise if everything is sold and bought in its value on the basis of the "Equivalent Exchange" principle, that is, if the goods exchange proportionally to the public in the process of production? The answer to this question K. Marx gives in chapter 4 of Tom I "Capital".

In the theory outlined by K. Marx, it is proved that although the workforce as the goods are sold in price, but it is this product that is the only and specific product, the value of which (in the goods necessary for the worker and his family) cannot be installed under capitalism in exact conformity With the principle of labor theory of value (value). The answer to this phenomenon of K. Marx is simple enough: the labor is a quantitative measurement with accuracy, and the valuation of labor is to a greater degree of problematics, as A. Aron, determined by the "state of morals" and collective and phology, which recognized Marx himself. Therefore The withdrawal of the author "Capital" is unequivocal - the source of surplus value is only the "unpaid labor" of productive workers selling their labor force. The surveying cost mechanism is as follows: during the "required time", which is always less than the time being worked out, the working time worries its " The necessary work "the value of their workforce to get it in the form of wages, and during the" surplus time "is used already" surplus work ", which creates for capitalists" Supporting Cost ". Argumenting the driving force of capitalist production, - the surplus value, K. Marx and F. Entells made a conclusion about the operation of the working class and its strengthening as capitalism and objectivity of it develops.

Based on the conclusion about the law - the trends of the norm profit to a decrease, they stated the doomedness of capitalism, which he himself comes into a narrow framework, limiting the possibility of implementing the moving goal of capitalist production, and creates its graveman - proletariat.

However, the theoretical foundation of the conclusions of Marx is quite controversial. Marx proves that as labor productivity growth increases, the reproduction time is reduced, the equivalent cost of labor. But an increase in labor productivity, it becomes possible only as a result of more modern means of production, new technology and technology. This requires additional investments carried out by the entrepreneur, the degree of risk of which is increasing as various innovations are implemented. Thus, an increase in the product produced, or, on the terminology of Marx, the creation of relative and excessive surplus value is a consequence of the use of additional capital, a change in the relationship between labor and capital. In other words, labor becomes more producing a result of changing the elements of capital, and therefore the increase in production cannot belong only to work. On a certain part, the owner of capital fairly claims. What part of the created product receives the owner of capital, and what - the owner of labor is another question that requires its degree. The explanation given by Marx the mechanism for the formation of a relative surplus value is in contradiction with its theory of the dual character of labor. After all, the increase in labor productivity, the result of which is the formation of a relative surplus value, there is a characteristic of a specific, not abstract work. "The productive force belongs to a specific, useful form of labor" - emphasized Marx. (K. Marx, F. Engels T.23 p.55). And the cost of goods is created on Marx, only abstract labor costs. Then it becomes problematic with the possibility of using the work concept as a theoretical study of the study.

Speaking about the communist future, based on social ownership of the means of production, K. Marx and F. Engels stressed that society "can neither jump through natural phases of development, nor cancel the last decrees. But it can reduce and soften the flour of childbirth." So they believed that the transition to the new public building It can occur not only for a violent way, but also by peaceful evolutionary methods.

5.4. Marxism and modernity

The ideas of K. Marx and F. Engels spread on all continents. They were either supported or criticized, denied, but no one remained indifferent to Marxism.

In Russia and Ukraine, the first propagandist of Marxism was a professor of the Kiev University of N.I. Siber (1844-1888). His book "David Ricardo and Karl Marx in their socio-economic research" (1885) played a big role in the ideological education of the first Marxists - the propagandists of the ideas of Marxism.

In the distribution of Marxism in Russia and Ukraine invaluable value He had a translation of "capital" into Russian, made by N.R. Danielson (1884-1918), a representative of liberal militarianism.

The first figure of Russian Marxism was G.V. Plekhanov (1956-1918). He and the group "Labor Liberation" published in Russian and distributed the works of K. Marx and F. Engels. Active propaganda of Marxism and at the same time the famous Ukrainian scientists were the active provisions of Marxist School. Thuang-Baranovsky. However, with all the criticism of Marx, Tugan -Banovsky noted that Marxism, if it comes down from the stage, only to enter into new teachings that will help solve the great social problems our time. The creative application of economic theory and dialectics - the materialistic method of K. Marx to the analysis of the conditions of the new historical era, appeared distinctive feature Labor V.I. Lenin (1870-1924). Named V.I. Leninasvita not only the protection of Marxism, but also the creative development of the general issues of the Theory of Marx, as well as the development of learning about imperialism. It formulated the features of the development of capitalism in the imperialist stage, the law of the unevenness of the economic and political development of capitalism and others. Problems. After the October Revolution of 1917, Marxism in the USSR becomes the official theory, on the basis of which state socio-economic policy was carried out.

After the death of V.I. Lenin official Marxism acquires the features of dogmatic, non-historical teaching, ignoring the features of the socio-economic development of the global economy in general and economics former USSR, in particular. In addition, the "state" Marxism was often limited to a simple declaration of individual Marxist provisions. It should add such a feature as the insanit of official state marxism from the main trends in the development of non-Marxist science. Therefore, in such a dogmatic interpretation and application, he could not give new approaches to analysis. socio-economic problems and became a brake in the further economic and political development of the country.

After Marxism has ceased to be the official theory in the USSR, individual deficiencies and errors of the Marxist theory, which not received earlier official criticism were exposed. The ideas of K.Marks on the purely exploitory nature of the capitalist building, the deepening and development of this nature, growth and strengthening of the absolute and relative-related working class were erroneous and were not confirmed historically. K. Marks did not see the ability of capitalism to improve and transformation, foreshadowing his death. However, the reality has denied the prediction of K. Mars. Capitalism found internal forces and survived, conducted a modification of the economy, strengthened the state intervention in the regulation of socio-economic processes, turned into a post-industrial society.

After the collapse of the former Socialist system and the USSR, several trends were planned in the evolution of Marxism. One of them is a complete denial of Marxism, the announcement of the utopianness of his ideas, insolvency as theoretical Basics Social transformation of society.

Another - is associated with the recognition of the non-alternativeness of Marxism, the protection of the teachings of Marx - Engels - Lenin.

The third tendency of the evolution of modern Marxism is neomarxyism. Representatives of this area are not only accused of misunderstanding the teachings of Marx or in its weak knowledge, but also call on the position of the theoretical system of a political economy. Marx and from these positions to evaluate the subsequent development of the theory. To do this, they call on the true theory of K. Marx to clear from distortion and all of the layers, which were allowed in the system of representations of the "political economy of socialism".

In conclusion, it should be noted that Marxism is a slim economic theory, which reflects the reality of its time, has been impaired on numerous actual economic data.

Naturally, at the end of 20V. And even more so in 21b. It is impossible to apply it in a constant form, as the fundamental changes in the economy, its structure, property relations, etc. They are also talking about the well-known Sumuelson economists, Gelbrreit, assessing the contribution of K. Marx to economic theory, but they say, he should be assessed with Positions of their time, from the position of capitalism of the early industrial revolution.

As noted earlier, some theoretical provisions of K. Marks were not confirmed by the practice of world economic development. However, Marxism retains the value of topics, says the English Professor Meslish that he teaches a method for analyzing socio-economic and political realities and K. Marks may be called the last of the great economists of the classical school A. Smita and D. Ricardo. Known american economist E. Hunt claims: "I believe that if when it is created by the Community, based on the principles of true equality and freedom, its creators will many of the ideas of K. Marx."

After that, a brief presentation of the main theoretical provisions of Karl Marx, we will try to find out the general nature of the socialist school that begins his name28 and differing from the socialist schools already studied by us.

a) she proudly expresses claims to the title of scientific socialism, but still thoroughly understand this epithet. Marxism is greater increasing than they did even economists, ridicule all the falans, all Icarian republics and all systems of a more or less integral association. He does not claim to draw up a new plan, but only, according to Labiorati, aroused as it were, "scientific and reasonable revelation relative to the path that your civil society runs (and forgive me the shadow Fourier29)." It is limited to clarifying the meaning of evolution, which is thin, whether it is fond of human societies, and an indication of the point to which their stroke leads.

According to its method, Marxism is much closer to the classical political economy and its concept of natural laws than to socialism. And it is no doubt. The theoretical provisions of Marx have their roots in the theories of great economists of the beginning of the XIX century, and mainly Ricardo. Marx is the heir to the latter in a straight line. He is his heir not only in his theory based on labor value, in the theory of antagonism between profit and wagesEven in the theory of rent, i.e. In all those doctrines, Ricardo, who were slightly modified to the Marxist doctrine and make up a powerful exa in it, but also, no matter at first glance, paradoxical, even in its abstract dogmatic method and in their foggy formulas that constantly allow him to speak that they did not understand and that they gave them an esoteric meaning - everything is just like Ricardo. " True, Marx relies on rich observations on facts (we have shown, however, that Ricardo was obliged to observations more than they think), but he simplifies and summarizes them in order to extract purely schematic constructions, exactly how it did it Ricardo, and then his students. It is up to such an extent that now it remains at Orthodox Marxists the only resource for the protection of theoretical buildings of the teacher, who seem unprovable, as, for example, labor theory and values \u200b\u200b- they say that Marx assumed (here is Ricardian "suppose that") Society Where labor would be everywhere with a homogeneous and TD.31 Marxism there is therefore graft to the classic tree escape, and although it is amazing and indiges to the terrible burdensive fruits, but this it nourishes it with its juices. That was why it was possible to write that "Capital" - "Not the first book of critical communism, but the last great book of bourgeois savings" 32.

Marxism not only continues and respects the political economy (and whom he makes stormy attacks on economists, it is in order to prove it that they do not understand it), but that will seem particularly unexpected, - continues and respects capitalism13. He is surprised by the Great, who perfect for them, he is infinitely grateful to him for the true revolutionary role he played, and for the fact that he is so well prepares nest, collectivism is placed almost without need to resort to some changes in NEM34.

Still, Marxists are strongly unhappy with the economists of the classic school. Marxista. Audit them for the fact that they did not decide to admit (because it was not in the interests of conservatives and bourgeois) the relative and transient nature of them studied by them social organization. Classics thought and taught that, for example, property and hired work - Eternal institutions. They imagined that the world was frozen forever in his modern bourgeois state, and do not want to know that the latter is also also the "historical category", which will disappear like different35.

b) Marxism diverges with all the former socialist schools in the fact that all sorts of harness about justice and the fraternity, which occupied such a large place in the French socialist movement. He is not talking about to know what will be the most just, but simply about what will happen. The theoretical provisions of the Communists do not rest at the ideas. They are just a general expression of these actual conditions36.

And they attribute the facts such value not only in economic regionThey resort to them and to explain all public relations, even relationships, so to speak, of the highest order: politicians, literature, art, morality and religion. Everything is explained by the facts of economic order, and above all relevant to the production facts, especially those concerning the technical instruments of production and their applications. For example, the facts relating to the production of bread, and in the field of bread production by successive transitions from the manual mill in ancient times to the water in the Middle Ages and to the vapor currently determines the change of the extensive industry capitalist and this last - large industries. The states of slavery, serfdom, the mercenaries, as well as the consecutive stages of civilization are generally also explained by the above facts much better than the progress of liberated ideas or other "bourgeois chatter" of the same caliber. These are the true bases on which everything else is towers. This concept, leaving the limits of political economy in his own sense and the component of the whole philosophy of history, has become famous under the name of historical materialism. "

This materialistic concept, taken in the vulgar sense of the word, apparently, hesitates from Marxism any care about morality, all sorts of sentimentality and, in frequently repeated expression of the chef, reduces social question to the "stomach question". That was why she was hardly adopted by French socialists, and the latter strongly try to surround it with some halo.

But true Marxists say that such amendments are useless and testify only to the complete misunderstanding of what materialism is, because adopted in proper sense, i.e. In esoteric sense, how to do with every Marxist position, historical materialism does not at all exclude idealism, it excludes only the ideology that not the same thing. But he does not lead a person to fatal submission material environment, on the contrary, he sees the evolution in "conscious, albeit the involvement, the effort of people, persistently seekers social conditionsIn which they are ". In this case, historical materialism would be in the last account as if the philosophy of effort. It is clear that it is difficult to criticize such an elusive doctrine.

c) Marxist socialism differs from the former socialism in that he wants to be exclusively working, - the trait that gives him special physiognomy and strength. This is explained why while all other socialist systems lost credit and disappeared, Marxist socialism (despite the fact that, as we see now, a little left from the theory of its founder) retained all his power and comes to life in new forms.

The socialism of the first half of the XIX century in his wide humatarism hugged everyone without the difference in people - both workers, and bourgeois, and even as we saw on the rich, the ruling classes were calculated by Owen, Saint-Simon, Fourier for the founding of the future society. Not that Marxism. The latter strongly rejects any agreement, even every global deal with the bourgeoisie, and not only with capitalists, but also with intellectuals and with the "all the laying generating the official society." True socialism is nothing more than a totality of the interests of the working class, and its complete implementation is possible only when the last political power is reached.

True, it can be said that at all times socialism was nothing more than a gravity of the poor with rich, but litigation was taught on the basis of distribution fairness, and therefore it was hopeless. With Marxism, antagonism was erected into a scientific law under the name of the struggle of classes, the struggle of the poor against the rich, for it is not about a qualitative difference, but about constitutive. The struggle of classes is a slogan that Muzunyism promoted the success of Marxism, because even those whoever do not understand the word in his theory (i.e. almost entirely the work class), will not forget this formula, it will be enough to keep steam under pressure.

The struggle of classes is not a new phenomenon, because "the history of all society up to this day was only a history of the struggle of classes." But if so it was all in the past, it will not be so in the future. The struggle at which we are currently present - and it gives her a tragic interest - will be the last, for the collectivist system "will destroy the same conditions that lead to the antagonism of classes will destroy the existence of the classes themselves." We note in passing that this prophecy is not devoid of a strong dose of that utopian optimism, in which Marxists so cruelly reproach our old French socialists.

d) And finally, Marxism differs from most of the previous Socialist schools is purely revolutionary and even, as they say, a catastrophic character. Already the motto of his "struggle of classes" is quite clear talking about it. However, if you recall that the epithet "revolutionary" is used by Marxists to the actions of the bourgeoisie itself, it becomes clear that at all will not have to take it here in the vulgar sense.

The revolution will consist in eliminating the working class who owns the working class, but this elimination does not imply a guillotine, nor even the street revolution. It will be able to happen peacefully: or political and legal way, if the working class acquires the majority in parliament, the probability seems to be quite thorough, because it already has a majority vote of the electoral corps, in any case in countries with universal election law; or by economic, if, for example, working associations will be able to directly organize everything economic enterprises And leave capitalism in a state of empty shell.

The end or catastrophe may also come to another way, and even the most anticipated Marxists - in form economic crisiswhich will demolish capitalism and will be the necessary consequence of the capitalist system itself, so the latter will end, so to speak, suicide, self-destruction. Crisis, as we have seen, play a very large role in the teaching of Marx.

Nevertheless, if Marxism does not imply violence, he does not exclude it. He even assumes it quite likely, for the evolutionary movement will, of course, are not enough to identify new social forms from old, to transform the pupa to the butterfly. "Strength is an obeve grandstitch at the birth of any new society."

There is no place for false feeling. Evil and suffering are the necessary springs of evolution. If you could destroy slavery, serfdom or expropriation of artisans by capitalists and so on., I would have to spoil the springs of evolution, and it would have happened more evil than good. Each stage brings with them some unpleasant, but the conditions necessary for the onset of higher forms. On this basis, the reformism of bourgeois philanthropes and sermon social world Would be detrimental if they were valid. No antagonism no progress. It is noticeable that this arrogant indifference to suffering inherent in transition periods, also the legacy of the classical economic school and another trait of similarities with her. The latter also expressed, speaking of competition, the machine, the destruction of the small industry is large. Marxism admits only such reforms, the purpose of which is not the "reform" of society, but promoting the early onset of the revolution, such reforms that "can reduce the period of pregnancy and facilitate the flour of childbirth."

The formation of society is associated with the realization of material and spiritual human needs. Satisfaction of needs is the main motive for the participation of people in industrial relations and the foundation of economic development.

Value needs

Human needs encourage people to action. Needs exist in conjunction with the means of which their satisfaction is carried out. These "tools" are formed directly in the working process. Labor - expedient activities. It is manifested primarily in the ability of a person to create objects and means for material production. In the formation of property, the central link is the assignment of labor funds.

Economic interest

It arises on the basis of a system of various interests - the most important motive in improving production increases the number of needs. They, in turn, contribute to the further development of the economy. The formation of needs, among other things, depends on the subjective factors. These are primarily attracting the tastes and tendency of man, the spiritual needs of the individual, physiological and psychological features, as well as folk customs and habits. In this regard, conditions are formed under which a person is forced to establish the value of services or goods.

Production activities

It is carried out using economic System. The latter is a specific socio-organizational mechanism. Due to the limited resources, the satisfaction of all members of the Society is impossible to achieve. Nevertheless, civilization is committed to this goal as an ideal. This causes humanity to produce a variety of means that would allow to implement this task. Economic theory is acting as one of these funds.

Source elements

The first signs are found in the writings of thinkers of ancient Egypt and in the ancient Indian treatises. Valuable commandments concerning business are present in the Bible. As a scientific direction, the economic theory began to form more clearly in the works of the ancient Greek philosophers. The first ideas are formulated by Xenophone, Aristotle, Plato. It was they who introduced the term "savings", denoting them to the doctrine of creating and conducting household in slaveholding conditions. This direction was based on elements of natural work and market.

Development of economic schools

The works of the ancient Greek thinkers became a foundation for further formation of teachings. It was divided subsequently into several directions. As a result, the following main economic schools were formed:

General characteristics of the traditional direction

The main economic schools were formed under the influence of various views of different scientists. An outstanding role in the formation of traditional teachings was played by such figures like F. Kene, W. Petit, A. Smith, D. Ricardo, D. S. Miles, Jean-Batist Say. With the difference of views, they were united by several common ideas, on the basis of which a classic economic school was formed. First of all, all the authors named with supporters of economic liberalism. Its essence is often expressed by the phrase Laissez Faire, which literally means "leave to do." The principle of this political requirement was formulated by other physiocrats. The idea was to provide a full personality and competition, unlimited state intervention. Both of these economic schools considered a person as a "business entity." The pursuit of the personality towards the increase in its wealth contributes to an increase in such in the whole society. The automatic self-tuning mechanism ("invisible hand", as his Smith called) the scattered actions of consumers and manufacturers are sent in such a way that a long-term equilibrium is established throughout the system. At the same time, the long-term existence of inhapping, re-producting products and unemployment becomes impossible. The authors of these ideas have made a significant contribution to the formation of the school. economic Science. Subsequently, they were used and improved. Many economic schools contributed their additions to these ideas. As a result, systems were formed that corresponded to a particular stage of the establishment of society. So arose, for example, socio-economic school.

The idea of \u200b\u200bSmith

On the basis of the school of economic theory, the supporter of which was this figure, the concept of work value was developed. Smith and his followers believed that the formation of capital was carried out not only by agriculture. In this process, the work and other segments of the population, the entire nation in general, is of particular importance. Supporters of this school of economic theory argued that, participating in the production process, the workers of all levels enter into cooperation, cooperate that, in turn, excludes any distinction between productive and "barren" activities. Such interaction is most effectively when it is carried out in the form of market commodity exchange.

Economic schools: mercantilism and physiocrats

These exercises, as described above, existed in 18-19 centuries. These economic schools had different views on the production of public wealth. So, mercantilism adhered to the idea that the base was trading. To increase the volume of public wealth, the government must support domestic sellers and manufacturers, preventing foreign activities. Physocirates believed that economic base make up agriculture. Society they divided into three classes: owners, manufacturers and fruitless. As part of this teaching, tables were formulated, which, in turn, became a foundation for the formation of a model of intersectoral equilibrium.

Other directions of 18-19 centuries

Marginalism is an Austrian school who adheres to ideas about utmost utility. The leader of this area was representatives of this school explained the concept of "cost" from the position of the psychology of the consumer. They tried to basket exchange not at production costs, but on a subjective assessment of the utility of sold and purchased goods. Neoclassical school, whose representative was Alfred Marshal, developed the concept of functional relationships. A supporter of the mathematical direction was he characterized market economy As a structure that is able to achieve equilibrium through the interaction of supply and demand. They developed the concept of a common market balance.

Keynesianism and institutionalists

Keynes based its ideas on the assessment of the activities of the entire economic system as a whole. In his opinion, the structure of the market is not initially equilibrium. In this regard, he played for hard state regulation Turnover. Properties of institutionalism, Erhart and Gelbreit, believed that the analysis of the economic entity is impossible without taking into account the formation of the environment. They proposed a comprehensive study of the economic system in the dynamics of evolution.

Marxism

This direction was based on the theory and principle of systematic formation national economy. Karl Marx performed the leading learner. His work was subsequently developed in the works of Plekhanov, Engels, Lenin and other followers. Some of the provisions put forward by Marx were subject to revision of the revisionists. These, in particular, treated such figures like Bernstein, Zombart, Tugan-Baranovsky and others. In the Soviet years, Marxism performed as the basis and the only legal scientific direction.

Modern Russia: HSE

The Higher Economic School is a research institute that provides project, educational, socio-cultural and expert and analytical activities. It is based on international standards. HSE, speaking as part of the academic community, key element Its practices consider the involvement in university global interaction, partnership with foreign institutions. As the Russian University, the institution works for the benefit of the country and its population.

The main directions of HSE - empirical and theoretical studies, as well as the spread of knowledge. Teaching at the university is not limited to fundamental disciplines.