Employment. Employment and unemployment

Human capital, labor resources and economically active population

An important concept closely related to labor resources is considered human capital. In economic theory, there is a totality of knowledge and skills of workers. In the extended interpretation to human capital, the health of workers, their personal characteristics, the cultural level, the state of labor morality, the motivation system. To assess the human capital, it includes the accumulated value of all expenses for education, training and retraining of labor (health expenditure and culture, if it comes to a broad value of human capital).

For the first time the term human capital was proposed by the American economist Jacob Milser (1922- 2006) In 1958, in the article "Investments in human capital and the distribution of personal income." However, American economists have made the greatest contribution to the development of human capital theory - laureates of the Nobel Prize Theodore Schulz (1902-1998) and Gary Becker (r. 1930). Other well-known economists - Simon Kuznets, Edward Denison, John Kendrick, Robert Solow, Robert Lucas, and others.

Unlike the previously dominated submissions that the cost of education, training and retraining of labor refers only to costs, in the theory of human capital, they are considered as investments in economic growth, i.e. Investing in human capital is an analogue of investment in fixed assets. According to adherents of the theory of human capital, it is the growth of human capital that reflects in the growth of wages.

TO labor resources Believe the population capable of working. These are primarily people in working age, as well as working retirees, teenagers, immigrants.

However, statistical authorities prefer the term economically active population, which covers busy and unemployed (as synonym is often used by the concept work force ). In turn, busy are divided into working full and incomplete working week. According to international statistics, the first category includes persons who have worked 35 hours and more during the week, and to the second one - from 1 to 34 hours per week. Based on this, various employment indicators are applied: the total number of employed, the number of employees in terms of full time.

In the economically active population, hired and self-employed (working on themselves) workers are also allocated. In developed countries, the first category is an average of 85-90% of the economically active population, in less developed it is much smaller, primarily due to the large number of small farms in the primary sector, working more on themselves than on the market. Self-employed form the basis of the informal economy.

Scale and Dynamics of Labor Resources and Employment in Russia

In recent years, the number of economically active population in Russia was 75-76 million people., Including those employed in the economy - 70-71 million people.

As in other countries, in Russia, the supply of labor is determined primarily by the natural population growth and external migration scale. In turn, the natural increase is determined by the ratio of fertility and mortality, and although in modern Russia these indicators are improved, but the consequences of the demographic catastrophe of the 1990s. Non-free - natural increase was recovered only in 2012. It is compensated by a positive balance of external migration: for 1993-2011. More than 7.6 million people entered Russia for permanent residence. (mostly from the former Soviet republics), but left 2.9 million. In addition, the proposal of the workforce has a significant impact of temporary labor migration: according to estimates, the number of temporary labor immigrants, including unregistered, reaches 5-7 million people.

On the demand from demand, the main factor affecting the dynamics of employment in Russia remains economic dynamics. So, in 2009, i.e. In the midst of the last crisis, the number of economically active population decreased by 1.6 million people, since temporary migrants did not come so much as we left.

4.5. Theory of human capital

The problem of the essence of human capital and its role in production has always been interested in economists. The first attempt to evaluate the human capital carried out one of the founders of Western Politheconomy U.Peti in the work "Political Arithmetic" (1690). Approximately all over 200 years and English Economist J. Nikolson, and later, the founder of the Cambridge School of Politheconomy A. Marshall, turned to this issue.

The increase in the significance of the human factor in production in the conditions of the scientific and technical revolution contributed to the emergence and expansion at the turn of 60-hodges of HV. Theories of human capital.

The theory of human capital is a theory that combines various views, ideas, provisions on the process of formation, the use of knowledge, skills, human abilities as a source of future income and the assignment of economic benefits.
We developed her supporters of free competition and pricing in Western political economies of American economists T.-V. Schulz and G.-s. Becker. Later, J. Cendrik, Ts.Gryiliches, E. Denison, and others were engaged in these problems.
Schulz (Schultz) Theodore-William (1902-1998) is an American economist, Nobel Prize laureate (1979). Born near Arlington (South Dakota, USA). He studied in college, graduate school of Wisconsin University, where in 1930 he received a scientist degree of doctor of science in the specialty "Economics of Agriculture".
Teaching activities began in the College of Iowa. Four years later he headed the Department of Economic Sociology. From 1943. And for almost forty years he is a professor of the economy of the University of Chicago. The activities of the teacher connected with active research work. In 1945, a collection was prepared with the materials of the Food for Peace Conference, which special attention was paid to the factors of supplying food, the structure of the structure and migration of agricultural labor, the professional qualifications of farmers, agricultural production technology and the direction of investment in the farm. In the work "Agriculture in an unstable economy" (1945), he opposed the illiterate use of the Earth, as this leads to the erosion of soils and other negative consequences for the agrarian economy.
In 1949-1967. T.-V. Schulz - member of the Board of Directors of the US National Bureau of Economic Research, then an Economic Consultant of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, Food and Agricultural Organizations of the United Nations (FAO), several government departments and organizations.
Among his most famous works - "Production and well-being of agriculture", "Transformation of traditional agriculture" (1964), "Investments in people: the economy of the quality of the population" (1981) and others.

The American Economic Association awarded T.-V. Schoolz medal named F. Volcker. He is an honorary professor of the University of Chicago; He was awarded honorable scientists from the degree of Illinoisky, Wisconsinsky, Dijon, Michigan, North Caroline Universities and the Chilean Catholic University.
According to the theory of human capital in production, two factors interact - physical capital (means of production) and human capital (acquired knowledge, skills, energy that can be used in the production of goods and services). People spend funds not only for fleeting pleasures, but also on cash and non-monetary income in the future. Investments are sent to human capital. These are the costs of maintaining health, to receive education, costs associated with the search, obtaining the necessary information, migration, training in production. The magnitude of human capital is estimated by potential income that it is able to give.

T.-V. Schulz argued that human capital is a form of capital, since it serves as a source of future earnings or future satisfaction, or even taken together. And he becomes human because he is a part of a person.

According to the scientist, human resources are similar, on the one hand, natural resources, and on the other - real capital. Immediately after birth, a person, like natural resources, does not bring effect. Only after the corresponding "processing" man acquires quality capital. That is, with increasing costs of improving the qualitative condition of the workforce, labor as the primary factor is gradually transformed into human capital. T.-V. Schulz is convinced that, taking into account the contribution of labor to the production of products, the production capabilities of a person above all other forms of wealth together. The peculiarity of this capital, according to the scientist's opinion, is that independent of the sources of formation (own, public or private), its use is controlled by the owners themselves.
Microeconomic foundation of the theory of human capital was laid G.-s. Becker.

Becker (Becker) Harry Stanley (genus 1930) is an American economist, Nobel Prize laureate (1992). Born in Potswing (Pennsylvania, USA). In 1948 he studied at the Higher School of J. Madison in New York. In 1951 graduated from Princeton University. His scientific career is connected with Colombian (1957-1969) and Chicago Universities. In 1957 defended his doctoral dissertation and became a professor.
From 1970.-s. Becker worked as the head of the department of social sciences and sociology at the University of Chicago. He taught at the Goverr Institute of Stanford University. Collaborate with the Business Week weekly.

He is an active supporter of a market economy. In his heritage, there are many works: "Economic theory of discrimination" (1957), "Treatise on the family" (1985), "Theory of rational expectations" (1988), "Human Capital" (1990), "Rational expectations and the effect of consumption price" ( 1991), "Fertility and economy" (1992), "Training, work, quality of labor and economics" (1992), etc.
The through the idea of \u200b\u200bthe scientist works is that, making decisions in his daily life, a person is guided by economic reasoning, although it is not always aware of it. He argues that the market of ideas and motifs operates on the same patterns as the market of goods: demand and supply, competition. This also applies to such issues as wedding, family creation, training, choice of profession. Economic assessment and measurement, in his opinion, are also amenable to many psychological phenomena, such as satisfaction - dissatisfaction with the material situation, the manifestation of envy, altruism, egoism, etc.
Opponents G.-S. Beckker argue that, focusing on economic calculations, it will increase the importance of moral factors. However, the scientist has an answer: the moral values \u200b\u200bof different people are different, and there will be a lot of time until they become the same if it ever is possible. Personal economic benefit seeks to get a person with any morality and intellectual level.

In 1987-s. Becker was elected president of the American Economic Association. He is a member of the American Academy of Sciences and Arts, the National Academy of Sciences of the United States, the National Academy of Education of the United States, National and International Societies, the editor of economic journals, as well as Honorary Dr. Stanford, Chicago, Illinoisky, Jewish universities.

The starting point for G.-s. Becker was the idea that, when investing in the vocational training and education, students and their parents act rationally, given all the benefits and costs. Like "ordinary" entrepreneurs, they compare the expected rates of returns from such investments with the profitability of alternative investments (interest on bank deposits, dividends from securities). Depending on what is economically more expedient, they decide: to continue education or stop it. The rate of returns are the regulator of the distribution of investments between different types and levels of learning, as well as between the education system and the rest of the economy. High return standards indicate misconversion, low - about reinstaling.

G.-S. Becker carried out a practical calculation of the economic efficiency of education. For example, income from higher education is defined as a difference in lifelong earnings between those who graduated from college, and those who did not go further secondary school. Among the costs of training the main element were recognized "lost earnings", that is, the earnings suffered by students over the years of study. (In essence, lost earnings measure the value of students spent on the formation of their human capital). Comparison of benefits and costs of education made it possible to determine the profitability of investments in humans.

The scientist insists the differences between special and general investments in a person (and wider - between common and specific resources in general). Special preparation gives an employee of knowledge and skills that increase the future performance of its recipient only in the company, its training (different forms of rotary programs, familiarization of newcomers with the structure and internal register of the enterprise). In the process of general training, the employee acquires knowledge and skills that increase the performance of its recipient regardless of the company on which it works (training work on a personal computer).

According to G.-s. Becker, general preparation is defined by the employees themselves. In an effort to improve your qualifications, they agree to the lower salary during the training period, and later have income from general training. After all, if training financed firms, then every time you dismiss such employees, they would get rid of their investments in them. Conversely, special training is paid by firms, and they also receive income from it. When dismissal, on the initiative of the cost of the costs would carry employees. As a result, the overall human capital, as a rule, produces special "firms" (schools, colleges), and special - formed directly in the workplaces.
The term "Special Human Capital" helped to understand why workers with great experience in one place are less likely to change the place of work, and why the filling of vacancies occurs in firms mainly by internal movement in service, and not by hiring on the foreign market.

There are the theory of human capital and opponents. In particular, the Ukrainian scientist S.Mocherry the main disadvantages considers it an amorphous interpretation of the capital of capital, to which not only all that surrounds humans, but also certain traits of the person himself; Ignoring the fact that the cost of development of education, the acquisition of qualifications form only the ability to work, the labor force of the appropriate quality, and not the capital itself; the fallacy of the opinion that such capital is inseparable from the person himself; A number of provisions of the theory about the structure of human capital are not weighed, in particular, the search for the necessary information on the value of prices and income to the elements of this category is not correctly successful, since such a search is not always successful, as evidenced by significant unemployment in most countries; The situation that to convert acquired knowledge, experience, creative abilities and other elements of a person-worker to future income and the assignment of economic benefits The employee must constantly work, which means that the source of such income is not by itself the level of education, qualifications, and human labor. The biggest defects the theory of human capital, according to opponents, is its ideological orientation.

At the same time, the change in the nature of modern production and new requirements for knowledge and qualifications determine the determination that high education is the necessary base to achieve the best performance indicators.

Moreover, G.-S. Becker believed that the low-qualified worker becomes the capitalist not due to the diffusion (spraying) of the property for the shares of corporations (although such a point of view is popular). This happens by acquiring knowledge and qualifications that have economic value. The scientist was convinced that uneducation is the most serious factor that restrains economic growth.

Despite the fact that for a long time, many scientists and even supporters of the theory of human capital considered it as unsuitable for practical use, in recent years, scientists and managers in many countries make attempts to implement its provisions. This is facilitated by several aspects:

1.G.-s. Becker received quantitative estimates of the profitability of investments in a person and compared them with the actual profitability of most US firms, which helped concretize and expand the idea of \u200b\u200bthe economic efficiency of investments in human capital. The emergence of a large number of private educational institutions, the intensification of the activities of consulting firms, conducting short-term seminars and specialized courses, indicate that profitability in the private sector of educational activities is not lower than in other areas of entrepreneurship. For example, in the United States in the 60s of the HX. The profitability of educational activities by 10-15% exceeded the profitability of other types of commercial activities.

2. Theory of human capital explained the structure of the distribution of personal income, the age-old dynamics of earnings, inequality in the payment of male and female labor. Thanks to her, the attitude of politicians to education costs has changed. Educational investments began to be considered as a source of economic growth, as important as "ordinary" investments.

A wider interpretation acquires the concept of national wealth. It covers today together with real elements of capital (value assessments of land, buildings, structures, equipment, inventories) Financial assets and materialized knowledge and ability of people to productive work. The accumulated scientific knowledge, in particular, materialized into new technologies, investments in human health began to be taken into account in macroeconomic statistics as elements of national wealth having an innumerable form.

The new interpretation of "human" investments in ensuring socio-economic development and public progress recognized international organizations. The situation in the fields of education, health care and other factors characterizing the level of human resource development and the quality of life of the population became the main objects of the attention of international statistics. As integral indicators of the social development of society and the state of human resources, in particular, the human development index (social development index) is used; Index of the intellectual potential of society; indicator of the magnitude of human capital per capita; The coefficient of viability of the population and others.

Starting from 1995, in Ukraine, human development reports are preparing. So reports for 1995-1999, published by the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), became the basis for the rationale for human development as a means and goals of national development. Based on these reports, the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine reviewed and adopted the human development index developed by UNDP. Today, this index has become an important indicator of human development, the monitoring of which is carried out by the State Committee of Statistics on a regular basis.
3.Toria G.-s. Becker substantiated the economic need for large capital investments (public and private) in the "Human Factor". This approach is implemented in practice. In particular, the human capital index per capita (expresses the level of costs of the state, firms and citizens to education, health and other sectors of the social sphere per capita), used by the US labor bureau increased in the post-war years by 0.25% in year. In the 60s, the growth was suspended, which was associated primarily with the demographic characteristics of the period, and in the 80s accelerated - almost 0.5% annually.
According to G.-s. Becker, investments in the formation of citizens, medical care, in particular in children's, social programs aimed at preserving, support, replenishment of personnel are equivalent to investing in the creation or acquisition of new equipment or technologies, which in the future is returned by the same profits. Hence, according to his theory, support for school entrepreneurs and universities is not charity, but the concern for the future of the state.

The theory of human capital has created a single analytical structure for the study of funds invested in education and trade-breed, and also explained differences between countries consisting in the structure of employed in the economy. After all, the differences in the proposal of human capital in different countries is more significant than differences in the proposal of real capital. Among the problems, when solving which one can be a suitable theory of human capital T.-V. Schulz called the phenomenon when countries rich in capital, in particular created by material foundations, export predominantly time-consuming, and not capital-intensive products.
Examining the problems of human capital ,-s. Becker became one of the founders of new sections of the economic theory - the economy of discrimination, the economy of external economic, the economy of the crime, etc. He pounded the "bridge" from the economy to sociology, demography, forensic; The first introduced the principle of rational and optimal behavior in those sectors, where, as researchers believed before, habits and irrationality dominated.

The main social conclusion of the theory of human capital is that, in modern conditions, improving the quality of workforce is greater importance than the growth of the fear of labor. Control over production goes from the hands of the owners of monopolies on material capital in the hands of those who own knowledge. This theory opens the possibilities of assessing the contribution to the economic growth of the educational fund (by analogy with the assessment of the contribution of the main property funds), as well as the possibility of managing investment processes based on the comparison of returns from investments in property funds and educational fund.

In terms of public form employment - This is a certain set of socio-economic relations between people regarding the provision of working places to working places, the formation, distribution and redistribution of labor resources in order to participate in socially useful work and ensuring expanded reproduction of labor. This set of socio-economic relations finds its expression in such economic categories as individual (family) and collective labor activity, labor process, intensity and productivity, labor mobility, general education and training personnel, wages, etc.
Distinguish three main types employment: Complete, rational and efficient. Full employment - This provision to the society to the entire able-bodied population to engage in socially useful labor, on the basis of which the individual (within the family) and collective (with the participation of firms, companies and the state) reproduction of labor and satisfying the entire set of needs. Rational employment - employment which takes place in society, taking into account the feasibility of the redistribution and use of labor resources, their age-age and educational structure. This kind employment It is not always effective because it is carried out in order to improve the age employment,attraction to the labor activity of the working population of individual backward regions and others. Effective employment - this is employment which is carried out in accordance with the requirements of an intensive type of reproduction, criteria for economic feasibility and social performance, is focused on the reduction of manual, continent and severe physical labor.
Labor activity, depending on the form of ownership, is carried out on state, collective and private enterprises. Private, in turn, are divided into individual (family), labor and private-capitalistical. The prevailing majority of the working-age population in the developed countries of the world operates in the private sector. From the point of view of the structure of the national economy, most of the working-age population busy in the field of intangible production (about 2/3 of the total number, and in the USA - more than 70%). In agriculture busy From 2.5 to 5% of the total labor force.

Distinguish basic and special forms employment. The basic form is governed by labor legislation and model internal regulations for different categories of workers. Special, or non-traditional forms employment (Work at home, part-time, individual and collective labor activities, etc.) are used in accordance with special legal norms. In the USA and England unconventional forms employment covered more than 30% of the workforce.

In the countries of the former USSR dominates the type employment, which meets the technological method of production, based on manual and mechanized work. In structure employment Industrial and agricultural activities are dominated by the use of simple physical labor (more than 40% of the total number of employees). Developed countries of the world have passed this stage in the 40-50s. Today information type is dominated employment, related to collecting, processing and providing information in the field of production and circulation, etc. Grow costs for the preparation of high-quality labor in high-mentioned industries. In the United States, for example, undergo a retraining of 75-85% of managers, specialists, employees. In the private sector, almost a third of those workers are studying annually.

In modern conditions, an active regulation of the labor market is carried out. The state affects CE demand through the development of public entrepreneurship, the creation and implementation of public works programs, providing premiums to entrepreneurs for creating jobs in economically backward districts, training and retraining of personnel and others. Regulation by the state supply of labor is carried out through the reduction of the day of the working day, education development , Health, providing assistance to the unemployed, their retraining, the creation of labor exchange, etc.
Essence and reasons unemployment.

Unemployment is a socio-economic phenomenon in which part of the able-bodied population cannot find work, it becomes relatively excessive, replenishing the backup army of labor. By definition of the international organization of labor, the unemployed is a person who wants and can work, but does not have a workplace.
Unemployment for the first time appeared in the UK at the beginning of the XIX century, but until the end of the century, it did not wear a mass character, but increased only during periods of economic crises. So, in the USA in 1920-1929. The average number of unemployed was 2.2 million people, and in the 30s. - Already about 20%.

The first attempt to find out the essence and causes unemployment T. Malthus took. He explained her appearance too rapid growth of the population, which was awarded an increase in the number of production. The reason he saw in the eternal biological law. This theory with certain modifications exists today. Tools overcoming unemployment Malthus and Neomaltusians consider wars, epidemics, conscious birth restriction, etc. The main disadvantages of this theory are, firstly, the consideration of a person only as a biological creature, ignoring its social essence. Secondly, Malthus and his followers ignored (or significantly underestimated) the role of NTP, the possibility of providing an advanced growth of the production of consumption items as a result of the use of scientific and technology achievements. The conclusions of this theory did not confirm the practice.
In the mid-50s. There was a technological theory unemployment According to which its cause is the progress of technology, technical changes in production, especially random. To fight with unemployment According to its authors, it follows through the restriction of technological progress, its slowdown.

Most common in our time Keynesian theory unemployment according to which the reason lies in insufficient demand for goods caused by the inclination of people to save and insufficient incentives for investment. Keynesians proved to eliminate unemployment It is possible through the state incentive and investment. A special role in an increase in investment was given to a decrease in interest for a loan. The means of struggle S. unemployment J.Kains considered an increase in investments that could go on expanding public works and even for military spending.
According to one of the concepts, unemployment due to high level of wages, therefore, to reduce unemployment It is necessary to reduce wages. Neoclassical school believes unemployment Natural phenomenon.
Marxist theory explains unemployment The regularities of the capitalist production method, primarily the laws of competition, forcing capitalists to increase investment, improve the equipment, which leads to a relative increase in the cost of production expenditures in comparison with labor costs, an increase in the organic capital of capital. The latter is also associated with cyclical capital accumulation processes and reproduction features. In Marxist theory, this was the name of the universal law of capitalist accumulation. Its essence consists in the growing polarization of capitalist society, the presence of internally essential, sustainable and essential relations between the increase in the volume of functioning capital, public wealth, the productive force of the work of the proletariat, on the one hand, and the growth of the relative industrial reserve army, overpopulation, poverty, official paurierism - with other. The composite element of this law is the law of accumulation, the main forms of the manifestation of which include absolute and relative impoverishment.
The general law of accumulation allows you to identify the dialectical unity of the reasons associated with both the technological method of production and its public form. In the first case, such a reason is the progress of technology, which causes a leading increase in demand for the means of production in comparison with labor demand. This explanation is limited to technological theory unemployment. However, this explanation is not enough, since in the conditions of a humanistic society overcoming unemployment It would not be a special problem: the elevated employees would be provided with the possibility of employment in other fields and sectors for busy There would be a working day, there would be no employment On two or more work, overtime would be excluded, etc. Unfortunately, such a picture does not respond true. Therefore, the search for the reasons unemployment with the need to be supplemented with the analysis of public form - the conditions of the competitive struggle, the peculiarities of the capitalist accumulation that make unemployment Inevitable, since "it is the main reserve to meet additional demand for labor during the lifting period.

At the same time, it acts as an important factor of pressure on workers while reducing wages.

Along with the marked systemic reasons, unemployment It may also be caused by a complex of other reasons associated with structural changes in the economy, uneven development of productive forces in the national economy and individual regions, with constant progress of technology, especially its revolutionary form - HTR, the disproportionality of economic development, limited demand for goods and services, finally , with elementary search for employees of new jobs, where the salary, more substantive work, etc., depending on the conditions of these reasons unemployment They can act as the main, since the law of capitalist accumulation is not universal, as it acts not in all socio-economic formations and not even throughout the entire period of the existence of capitalism.

Distinguish the current, agricultural, stagnant unemployment. Current - generate structural, technological changes in the economy, crisis of transparent and prevalion, etc. The unemployed entities include persons who have the necessary general education and vocational training, physically and mentally healthy. Direct cause of them unemployment It is the excess of the supply of labor over its demand due to the uneven and disproportionate development of productive forces in various fields, industries and areas of the national economy. Most often, current overcrowding is short and medium-term unemployment. Agrarian overpopulation is due to the lack of a sufficient number of jobs in cities, which forces rural workers to stay in the village, working in the city, since incomes from labor on earth are not enough for normal existence. Constant overpopulation is characterized by irregularity employment individual categories of the population (seasonal work, sought-to-date). The lower layer of this category of the unemployed is Pupros (disabled and those who can not find a job for a long time).

In accordance with derivatives (relatively main) allocate unemployment technological, arising from the displacement of employees due to the introduction of a new, usually automated technology; friction - related to the flow of labor due to its professional, age and regional movements; structural, due to structural changes that cause inconsistency in the structure of workplaces and professional inconsistency; cyclic, associated with economic cycles and, above all, crises; conversion caused by the end of hostilities, a significant reduction in the production of military products; Regional, institutional, hidden. In developed countries around 50% of the unemployed increase due to structural form unemployment. Depending on the age, youth unemployment, unemployment among older people, etc.
Unemployment causes considerable economic damage to the state. According to the law A. OUEN, its increase by 1% leads to loss of annual products by more than 2%, and the annual increase in GNP in the amount of 2.7% holds the share of unemployed at a constant level. At the unemployed, the lack of work has a significant psychological pressure, increases the amount of heart disease, tragic cases. Loss of workplace in developed countries in its psychological effects is equivalent to the death of a close relative.

In Western Economic Literature, the concept of A. Filipses received widespread, in which the inverse relationship is justified between the inflation rates and the level unemployment On a short time cut. For a longer time, according to the conclusions of modern economists, such a dependence is not manifested.

The number of officially registered unemployed in the developed countries of the world has grown from 11.7 million people. In 1965 to more than 50 million in the mid-90s. If in the US under full employment In 1946, understood the restriction unemployment 4% level, then in the early 90s. - Already 7%.

These data indicate the action of the population law, the essence of which, according to K. Marx, is to increase the industrial reserve army of labor.

Workforce and related concepts

As a result of a long process of development of ideas about a person as a subject of economic life, a number of concepts appeared: "Working force", "Human resources", "labor resources", "human factor", "labor potential", "human capital". These concepts, often close in its content, carry their own semantic load and reflect the gradual awareness of the society of the growing role of a person in economic and public life (Fig. 4.1).

Fig. 4.1. System of concepts characterizing resources for labor

The concept of " work force" In socio-economic literature and in practical life is used in two values. First, as a combination of the physical, spiritual and intellectual abilities of the person, which he can use for the production of material and spiritual benefits, services, i.e., to carry out work. Secondly, as a combination of carriers of labor abilities - those people who have the specified abilities. In other words, labor as the ability to work is identified with carriers of this ability - people.

It should be noted that in the second sense, the concept of "labor force" is used quite widely and its boundaries are not enough. Official statistics calls labor economically active population , i.e., those people who already actually work or offer themselves in the labor market as potential workers.

If the production of material goods and services is considered from the standpoint of a resource approach, then it will be apparent to the conclusion that, along with material, energy, financial resources, the most important factor in economic development are human resources, i.e. people with their professional knowledge and skills. The originality of human resources is that this is both the resources of the economy, and people - consumers of material goods and services.

As one of the forms of human resources express labor resources which includes a able-bodied population in working age and actually working teenagers and pensioners. The concept of "labor resources" was born and approved in the USSR and other countries of the former Council of Economic Mutual Assistance (SEA) practicing centralized planning as the main method of state impact on the economy. Under these conditions, a person acted as a passive object of external management as a planned accounting unit of labor resources. At the same time, as practice has shown, the concept of "labor resources" fits into the system of market categories and, due to its broad informative, it can be used as an effective tool for state regulation of the labor market.

The concept of "labor resources" gives the quantitative characteristics of that part of the population that has the abilities to work. But it does not take into account the differences in the labor abilities and the possibilities of people. Therefore, in the scientific turnover from the beginning of the 80s of the last century, the concept was introduced. labor potential "Which in the general form can be defined as labor resources in high-quality measurement, i.e., taking into account gender, age, education, state of health, consciousness and activity that determine the "return" of labor resources as a resource of the economy. The concept of labor potential is based on the submission of a person not as a passive object of external management, but as a subject with its capabilities, needs and interests in the field of labor.

From the end of the past century in the theory and practice of management, widespread a view of a person as a chief, decisive factor production and social development. The priority was the understanding that ultimately not the technical level of production determines the economic potential of enterprises, organizations, society as a whole, and human factor incarnating the ability to create, invent, produce new knowledge.

The human factor is considered as a manifestation of the entire totality of personality qualities of a person who affect its labor activity. The human factor of production is characterized not only by indicators of the number, demographic, industrial, professional and qualification structures of workers, but also by indicators of labor, initiatives, enterprise, interests, needs, values, ways of behavior in various situations.

The human factor is an economic and political term, the subject of the interests of the modern general theory of systems, labor psychology, ergonomics and sociology. Attention to the human factor is directly related to the need for socio-economic development, which cannot be ensured using authoritarian, administrative-bureaucratic management methods. The activation of the human factor is a multi-faceted problem to which the complex processes of formation of moral values \u200b\u200binclude the problems of family, school and home education, the physical health of society, the preservation of cultural traditions, personnel and social policies, education, etc.

Another concept that has been distributed lately - human capital - based on the submission of a person as an object of effective investments and a subject, which converts these investments in a set of knowledge, skills for the purpose of their subsequent implementation. Human capital is a margin of knowledge, skills, skills and motivation, which reflects the combination of physical, intellectual and psychological qualities and human abilities. By purchasing the form of capital in connection with the continuity of the process of its accumulation, it contributes to the growth of labor productivity and affects the growth of human income and the economy as a whole.

The costs of a separate person related to capital investments in education and vocational training may include three components:

Direct costs (training fees, the cost of acquiring textbooks, a change in the place of residence and passage, etc.);

Missed opportunities (missed earnings) during study and due to the likely change of profession, place of work;

Moral damage caused by nervous voltage due to education, search for work, likely change of habitat.

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Labor potential The development of the economy of any country depends on its human potential. However, it is important for the economy not just the total population, but the number of people in working age. In our country, men are considered to be men between the ages of 16 and 60 years old and women aged 16 to 55 years. Labor potential. The development of the economy of any country depends on its human potential. However, it is important for the economy not just the total population, but the number of people in working age. In our country, men are considered to be men between the ages of 16 and 60 years old and women aged 16 to 55 years.

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Labor resources Labor resources - part of the country's population capable of working in the country's farm. The composition of labor resources includes: all able-bodied population, part of the disabled population (working disabled people and preferential pensioners who have retired in a relatively young age), working adolescents at the age of 14-16 years, a significant part of the population over the age of worm-bodied, which continue to work. Labor resources - part of the country's population capable of working on the country's farm. The staff of labor resources includes: all able-bodied population, part of the disabled population (working disabled people and preferential pensioners who retired in a relatively young age), working adolescents aged 14-16 years, a significant part of the population over the age of working bodies that continue to work

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The economically active population in the conditions of transition of Russia to market relations is more correct to apply the term "economically active population". The economically active population includes persons employed in the economy (working on hiring or having their own business), and unemployed.

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Unemployment in the unemployed category includes people who usually want to work, are engaged in searching work, but can not yet find a suitable place. The number of unemployed in Russia is 7.5% of the economically active population. The average age of Russian unemployed - 34.9 years. The unemployed category includes people who usually want to work, are engaged in searching for work, but cannot yet find a suitable place. Officially, less unemployed has been registered in the employment services than it actually exists (such a phenomenon was called "hidden unemployment"). The number of unemployed in Russia is 7.5% of the economically active population. The average age of Russian unemployed - 34.9 years. That is, these are people in the very prime of physical and intellectual forces.

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Hidden unemployment hidden unemployment, characteristic of the crisis economy, was widespread in the early 1990s, when enterprises reduced the number of working days and hours, detained the salary, people were engaged only partially, but were listed working. At the same time, many were worked out by private transportation, trade, etc. The number of Russian unemployed registered in the bodies of the employment service in 2004 was only about 2 million people. The hidden unemployment, characteristic of the crisis economy, was widespread in the early 1990s, when enterprises reduced the number of working days and watches, retarded the salary, people were engaged only in part, but were listed working. At the same time, many were worked out by private transportation, trade, etc. The number of Russian unemployed registered in the bodies of the employment service in 2004 was only about 2 million people.

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Reasons for unemployment The main reason is the crisis state of the country's economy (reducing the production of enterprises and industries). Structural restructuring of the country's farm (change in demand for some professions, the emergence of new professions). Low rates of creating new jobs that do not sleep for the natural growth of the population. Unemployment depends on the ratio of demand and suggestions for labor. But the reasons that determine this ratio may be different. The main reason for unemployment in Russia is the crisis state of the country's economy, which is manifested in a sharp reduction in the production of individual enterprises and entire industries (mechanical engineering, light industry, agriculture, etc.). For this reason, the population of territories where enterprises and industries are concentrated in the most difficult situation, which are concentrated. Another reason for unemployment is the structural restructuring of the country's farm, in which the demand for some professions is changing, jobs are reduced in some industries and increase in others. Structural unemployment covers several percent of the economically active population of the country and is an objective process of the development of the country's farm. Thus, structural unemployment is characteristic of the Ivanovo region, where many enterprises of the textile industry are located. Areas with a wide range of sectors of specialization, major cities with many industrial and non-productive enterprises are in relatively favorable conditions. The level of employment of the population is much higher here, and the unemployment rate is lower than in regions with a narrow specialization of the economy. An example of such a region can serve as a European Center. Writing in recent decades, the decline in the natural growth of the population of Russia creates the problem of "aging of the population". As a result of this process, the number of Russians are growing over the age of worm-bodied, and the proportion of population in childhood and working age is reduced. However, for some territories of Russia, a high natural increase in the population remains. In the working age, a large number of young people who need new jobs are entering the working age. The growth rate of the able-bodied population in such regions is more than the speed of creating jobs, respectively, the unemployment rate is growing. Such a reason for unemployment is characteristic of the republics of the North Caucasus. Its result is labor migration of the population, mainly in the central regions of Russia.

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Human Capital National Human Capital is the most educated, creative, initiative, professional and healthy part of labor resources, an intense productive factor in the country's economic development. For the formation and efficient functioning of human capital, significant state costs are needed to create a medium that ensures the high quality of the population's life. The main forms of "investments in humans" include investments in education, healthcare and social security. People are the main wealth of the country. However, characterizing the population of the country, not enough to take into account only its number, demographic indicators, the proportion of people-bodied people. In modern society, the indicators characterizing the quality of the population are growing increasingly important: the level of intellectual development, education, culture, qualifications, health, etc. The person educated, conscious, who has good health and high level of professionalism not only returns funds spent on it, but also Multiplely summarize them, creating material, spiritual, intellectual values. Thus, the National Human Capital is the most educated, creative, initiative, professional and healthy part of labor resources, an intense productive factor in the country's economic development. For the formation and effective functioning of human capital, significant state costs are needed to create a medium that ensures the high quality of life of the population. The main forms of "investments in humans" include investments in education, healthcare and social security. In economically developed countries, in the last half a century, investments in human capital are significantly ahead of investments in production (physical) capital. Thus, in the United States "Investments in Human", i.e., social spending on education, health care and social security, in 1970, amounted to 194% in relation to production investments, and in 2010 - already 420%.

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"Brain leak" from Russia in 1990-1995. In connection with the crisis state of the scientific industry, about 50 thousand Russian scientists left working abroad. The long-term process of "brain leakage" led to the fact that the main part of the global human capital focused in developed countries of the world. In the conditions of poor quality of life, low security, an aggressive or depressing environment of residence and work, the best experts leave there, where it is more convenient for them to live, more comfortable and safer. Abroad, this phenomenon was called "brain drain". So, from Russia in 1990-1995. In connection with the crisis state of the scientific industry, about 50 thousand Russian scientists left working abroad. The long-term process of "brain leakage" led to the fact that the main part of the global human capital focused in developed countries of the world.

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The formation of human capital Human capital is part of the national wealth of the country along with natural, industrial, financial and intellectual capital. Human capital is part of the national wealth of the country along with natural, industrial, financial and intellectual capital. According to experts, the cost of global human capital is 365 trillion US dollars, or 66% of world wealth. Most economically developed countries of the world, human capital is 70-80% of accumulated national wealth. In Russia, human capital is significantly lower (about 50%), both at the expense of the high cost of natural resources and due to low investments on social needs. Currently, national education and healthcare projects initiated by the President of the Russian Federation are sent to the formation of human capital. However, human capital is impossible to change in a short time, since its value and quality depend not only on education, knowledge and public health, but also from mentality, which is formed by decades. For example, the connamed relationship of a part of the population to their lifestyle (smoking, drinking alcoholic beverages, etc.) makes state investment in health care ineffective. At the same time, the presence of a national idea, uniting citizens, a high culture of the majority of the population serves as a foundation for the formation of the human capital of the country, which confirm the examples of Finland, Japan, South Korea, China and a number of other countries.

Keywords

HUMAN CAPITAL / Informal employment / Unemployment / self-employed / NOMINAL WAGES / Social funds / LABOR RELATIONS / Human Capital / Informal Employment / Unmployment / Self-Employed / Nominal Wages / Social Funds / Labor Relations

annotation scientific article on economics and business, author of scientific work - Blokhina Tatyana Konstantinovna, Blokhin Kirill Vladimirovich

The article discusses informal employment as a factor of influence on development human capital. Wherein informal employment represented in two forms: as an independent phenomenon and as a factor of impact on human capital. The authors allocate criteria for assigning workers to informal employmentthat allow you to highlight the main characteristics of this type of labor as the form of unregistered labor relationship. In contrast to the established points of view in the article informal employment Estimated as a negative factor that reduces the main characteristics human capital. The main causes of distribution in Russia are highlighted informal employmentIn the first place there are high barriers to the entry of entrepreneurs to the market, complex taxation, high interest in lending. Dependence is shown informal employment from unemployment and growth rates nominal wageswhere unemployment is in back proportional dependence on informal employmentand growth rate nominal wages Contribute to the localization of growth informal employment. The findings obtained in the article allowed to formulate the main directions of reducing this phenomenon in the Russian economy through the creation of the best conditions for the development of entrepreneurship.

The Impact on the Development of Informal Employment Human Capital

The ARTICLE EXAMINES INFORMAL EMPLOYMENT AS A FACTOR OF INFLUENCE ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN CAPITAL. AT The Same Time, Informal Employment Is Present In Two Forms: AS An Independent Phenomenon and As A Factor in the Impact on Human Capital. The Author Singles Out The Criteria for Assigning Workers to Informal Employment, Which Allow to Identify The Main Characteristics of this Species of Labor As a form of unregistered employment. In CONTRAST TO THE WELL-ESTABLISHED POINTS OF VIEW IN THE ARTICLE INFORMAL EMPLOYMENT IS ESTIATED TO BE A NEGATIVE FACTOR REDUCING THE BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF HUMAN CAPITAL. The Basic Causes of The Spreading InFormal Employment in Russia, include the Market of Entrepreneurs, Complex Taxation, High Interest Rates When Lending. The dependence of informal employment on the level of unemployment and the rate of nominal wage growth, where unemployment is inversely proportional to the informal employment, and the rate of nominal wage growth contribute to the localization of informal employment growth. These Findings In The Article It Possible to Formulate The Main Directions of Reducing This Phenomenon In The Best Conditions for Business Development.

Text of scientific work on the topic "The influence of informal employment on the development of human capital"

Internet magazine "Sciences" ISSN 2223-5167 http://naukovedenie.ru/

Volume 8, №6 (2016) http://naukovedenie.ru/vol8-6 .php

URL articles: http://naukovedenie.ru/pdf/113evn616.pdf

Blokhin T.K., Blokhin K.V. The effect of informal employment on the development of human capital // Internet magazine "Sciences" Volume 8, No. 6 (2016) http://naukovedenie.ru/pdf/113evn616.pdf (free access). Stall. From the screen. Yaz. Rus., English

Blokhina Tatyana Konstantinovna

FGAU in the Russian Friendship University of Peoples, Russia, Moscow1

Doctor of Economic Sciences, Professor E-Mail: [Email Protected] RINTS: http://elibrary.ru/Author Profile.asp? Id \u003d 613483

Blokhin Kirill Vladimirovich

FSBI "All-Russian Research Institute of Labor of the Ministry of Labor

and Social Development of the Russian Federation, Russia, Moscow Leading Researcher Candidate of Economics E-mail: [Email Protected]

The effect of informal employment on the development of human capital

Annotation. The article discusses informal employment as a factor of influence on the development of human capital. In this case, informal employment is represented in two forms: as an independent phenomenon and as a factor of exposure to human capital. The authors allocate criteria for assigning workers to informal employment, which allow to allocate the main characteristics of this type of labor as a form of unregistered labor relations. Unlike the established points of view in the article, informal employment is estimated as a negative factor that reduces the main characteristics of human capital. The main reasons for the dissemination of informal employment in Russia are highlighted, among which there are high barriers to the entry of entrepreneurs to the market, complex taxation, high interest in lending. The dependence of informal employment on the unemployment rate and the growth rate of the nominal wage is shown, where unemployment is in inversely proportional dependence on informal employment, and the growth rate of the nominal wage contributes to the localization of the growth of informal employment. The findings obtained in the article allowed to formulate the main directions of reducing this phenomenon in the Russian economy through the creation of the best conditions for the development of entrepreneurship.

Keywords: human capital; informal employment; unemployment; self-employed; nominal wages; Social funds; labor Relations

1 117198, Moscow, ul. Miklukho-Maclay, d. 6 1

Human capital in modern conditions is considered as a key factor in economic growth, reflecting the relationship between the state of the economy and the quality of human potential. According to the World Bank estimates and the UN Development Program, recently almost all countries of the world have experienced changes in the structure of national wealth, where the accents are shifted from physical capital (16% of the total wealth of each country) for human capital (64%). It should be noted that in developed countries the volume of human capital has already been reached within the level of 75%. Thus, according to the World Bank, the structure of national wealth of the United States consists of a physical capital at the level of 19%, natural resources - 5%, human capital -76%, and the structure of the national wealth of the European Union countries is 23%; 3% and 74%, respectively.

The concept of "human capital" includes the accumulated stock of knowledge, skills and competencies, which have every person in order to use them as a source of future income. As any capital, it needs to invest, since investing in a person is one of the forms of resource allocation in time, when real benefits in one or another proportion are exchanged for the future.

OECD experts proposed the definition of human capital, reflecting all aspects of the investment process in people, according to which human capital is "knowledge, skills, skills and abilities embodied in people who allow them to create personal, social and economic well-being" 2. This interpretation of human capital allows you to allocate the main directions of the investment process, which are concentrated on the development of education, formation of production skills, maintaining health, employment.

Currently, while maintaining the positive dynamics of all factors for the development of the Russian economy, the employment situation undergoes serious changes: its bundle on formal and informal. If, in general, the employment indicator marks a positive dynamics, due to a stable low level of unemployment (5.6%), then in parallel with this there is an increase in informal (unregistered) employment. From 2012 to 2015 The annual increase in workers in the field of informal employment is 3-5%. In 2015, the number of informally employed increased to 14.8 million people, which is 20.5% of the employed population of Russia3.

The main criteria for assigning workers to the category of informally employed, in view of a number of scientists, are the following:

a) labor status, which reflects the presence or absence of legally executed employment contracts;

b) working conditions that are characterized by the harmful nature and absence of a labor protection system;

c) optimization of business management by evasion from paying taxes and legal design transactions;

d) the essence of labor, manifested through the illegality of labor relations.

2 OECD Productivity Manual: A Guide to the Measurement of Industry Level Aggregate Productivity Growth. Paris: OECD, 2001.

3 Economic activity of the population. Rosstat, 2016. - Electronic resource: http://www.gks.ru/Free Doc / New Site / Finans / Gfin Tab1.htm.

Recently, among scientists, there has been an increased interest in the study of informal employment in connection with the growth of its share in the global economy. According to neoliberals, informal employment is a direct consequence of excessive regulation, high taxes and state interference in the free market. The neoliberal approach causes sharp discussions in Europe, since in the European Union it is believed that high tax rates are not the cause of the growth of informal employment. A larger state regulation of the economy has a greater impact on its growth.

While scientists from Eastern European countries allocate the negative impact of informal employment to the economy through the fiscal consequences associated with tax loss of income. At the same time, the social consequences of informal employment are manifested in reducing the quality of life of the population, since with an increase in the share of informal employment, the level of household incomes significantly decreases even when the unemployment rate is reduced.

For Russia, the development of informal employment has a dual nature. On the one hand, such employment opens the opportunity to work for workers, thereby reducing unemployment in the country. On the other hand, work in the field of informal employment has a high degree of uncertainty and risk, as it is carried out without legal consolidation of relations. However, the presence of risks does not reduce the attractiveness of informal employment, as it makes labor in this area more accessible to various categories of workers. The spread of informal employment contributes such factors as:

Availability of a large group of workers who are ready to work without issuing labor relations;

A number of bureaucratic obstacles on doing business in Russia;

Low-efficient sanctions for employers for violation of labor legislation.

The widespread dissemination of informal employment in the Russian economy is due to the lack of in the system of government control over the development of various forms of use of labor. This creates the ability to attract a significant number of employees to the informal sector of the economy.

In the context of the modern economic crisis, there is a faster development of informal employment, since employers use unregistered labor relations as a means of savings on taxes and payments to extra-budgetary funds, and the workers attracted this way and the conditions for their use.

Consolidating all forms of use of informally employed workers, you can allocate several reasons for the development of informal labor relations in the Russian economy.

First, most often informal labor relations arise between employees and employers in order to meet personal needs and needs that are not counted by government agencies. The reason for their development is to be able to satisfy the interests of employers and workers at the expense of the imperfection of the current management system.

Secondly, the incentive to an increase in the informal labor market can be an excessive supply of labor. In this case, the work in the informal sector is for the worker the only way in terms of ensuring its standard of living.

Thirdly, the growth of informal employment affects the low level of wages in the formal sector, which does not allow certain categories of citizens to meet their needs.

Fourth, the weak state regulation of labor relations also affects the formation of informal employment, as a result of which the possibility of the population to work outside the formal economy appears.

It should be noted that the influence of informal employment to the labor market is ambiguous. On the one hand, such employment positively affects the expansion of overall employment and promoting increasing incomes of the population. On the other hand, it opens up certain advantages for employers in terms of business conditions. Thus, according to a number of researchers, among the motives of care to informal employment in the first place, the desire to earn and maintain or increase their standard of living (35%). In second place in terms of significance, the desire of entrepreneurs to reduce costs and concealment of income from taxation (28%). A much smaller meaning, according to most of the employers surveyed, has a desire to fill out due to informally occupied non-flexible jobs (7%) or more flexible use of labor (2%).

The results of various studies show that the state has high barriers to the entry of entrepreneurs to the market (bureaucratic barriers during business registration, complex taxation, high interest in lending). For this reason, a significant part of Russian entrepreneurs leads their business to the shadow sector of the economy. Therefore, simplifying business conditions, elimination of bureaucratic barriers acts as a key direction to a significant reduction in informal employment.

The most closely informal employment is associated with unemployment, having direct influence on it. Considering the geography of the spread of informal employment in the regions of Russia, we have noted that it has the greatest manifestation in regions with a higher level of unemployment (South and North Caucasus District).

In this connection, it was assumed that the higher the unemployment rate, the lower the likelihood of employment in the official sector of the economy, which stimulates the growth of informal employment. And, on the contrary: at low growth rates of unemployment, the range of opportunities to obtain work at registered enterprises is wider, which contributes to the reduction of informal employment. This conclusion is celebrated by many Russian scientists.

However, the comparison of the levels of growth of informal employment and changes in unemployment for the period 2004-2015. showed the inverse relationship between these indicators. Unemployment in Russia decreased in the period 2004 - 2015. From 7.8 to 5.6%, while informal employment for the period under review rose from 16.8 to 20.5% (Table 1).

At the same time, after the crisis of 2008, for a short period, this dependence has changed the direction: from 2008 to 2010. The unemployment rate rose from 6.2 to 8.3%, and informal employment - decreased in 2009-2010 from 19.3 to 16.4%. Based on this, it is assumed that the development of informal employment is influenced by the amount of income of the population, which in crisis periods are reduced and affect the reduction of demand for the services of the informal sector.

Table 1

The share of informally employed in the total number of employed population of the Russian Federation

Years are informally employed, thousand people The growth rate, in% the share of informally employed in the total numerical employed population,% unemployment rate,%

2004 11343 -- 16,8 7,8

2005 12518 10,4 18,3 7,1

2006 12601 0,7 18,2 7,1

2007 12931 2,6 18,3 6,0

2008 13837 7,0 19,5 6,2

2009 13382 - 3,3 19,3 8,3

2010 11482 -14,2 16,4 7,3

2011 12922 10,7 18,2 6,5

2012 13600 5,2 19,0 5,5

2013 14096 3,6 19,7 5,5

2014 14387 2,1 20,1 5,2